childhood+experiences+and+their+impact+on+criminal+behaviour


 * The Effect of Childhood Experiences on Adult Criminality **

There has been much empirical literature and research on childhood and the effects that negative experiences have on the individual in their adult lives. While it is not always the case that children and adolescents who have to manage often difficult and harsh upbringings will partake in crime later on in life, there are a proportion that will engage in illegal activity, either through substance abuse, violence or other more serious crimes, such as assault, rape and murder. In this essay, it will be shown how childhood maltreatment, neglect and poverty can negatively impact on the child and contribute to the path that person will take as an adult. The effect that early intervention programs has on young offenders will also be examined. It is theorised that a strong link exists between negative experiences and adult criminal offences, childhood being the basis for the growth of personality and forming the pathways that individuals take as adults. Criminology can be quite hard to define in the sense that there are many different ideas to what constitutes as a crime, and it is also something that differs between states and countries. Generally speaking criminality refers to an individual who engages in an activity that has been ruled as illegal by the government that the individual lives under. Also laws often change as new laws are passed- such as the constantly changing of licencing laws in relation to teenage drivers, and this can redefine crime (Hayes & Prenzler, 2009). Adult criminology can be further defined as an illegal act that someone over the age of 18 commits. There are many types of crimes, but they can basically be broken down into seven categories: Violence, drugs and alcohol, economic crime, property crime, environmental crime, organised and transnational crime, and the recent and ever evolving cybercrime (Australian Institute of Criminology, 2011). These crimes can be further subcategorised into specific offences; such as sexual assault, rape, domestic violence and so forth. In a study undertaken by Mersky and Topizes 2008, it was found that children that grew up in households where they were maltreated and abused were at greater risk of committing illegal offences and less likely to achieve well in their education, which again has knock-on effects to other parts of their lives such as future opportunities and financial success. This study showed a significant difference in the success rates of young adults from maltreated and well- treated homes (Mersky & Topitzes, 2010). Additionally, children who grow up in unstable and abusive homes are more likely to repeat the same „cycle of violence‟ when they start their own families. The „cycle of violence‟ refers to individuals who grow up in abusive households, who in turn inflict the same treatment they received on their children. Mental, physical and sexual abuse have all been shown as triggers for behaviour problems that can often lead to criminal behaviours (Mersky & Topitzes, 2010). Child sexual abuse and the impact it has on later life, has long been the subject of many studies. Through extensive research it has been found that adults who have experienced sexual abuse in their childhood have a greater likelihood of becoming offenders of the same offence themselves. Although, the likelihood of such offences taking place is heightened, the majority of victims do not become offenders themselves (McGraph, et. al, 2011). Glasser et al (as cited in Mc Graph et. al, 2011) found that children that were physically abused were at a higher risk of committing violent crimes, including sexual assaults, as adults. This adds to the theory of „cycle of violence‟. When it comes to genders, it has been found that while females are at a higher risk of being sexually abused, they are less likely to commit sexual criminal offences, although are more likely to be charged with prostitution. Males are much more likely to perpetuate sexual abuse against children if they were abused as a child themselves (McGraph et. al, 2011). The role that poverty during childhood plays in determining future outcomes is the subject of ongoing studies. It has been shown that neglect is the most common form of abuse and that neglect and poverty often go hand in hand, but the effects are yet to be fully realised as it is an area that has not had extensive research. Completed studies have found a positive correlation between poverty, neglect and crime. Most of these studies tend to focus on the effects of poverty on juvenile delinquency, rather than the extent of the effect it has in adulthood (Nikulina et al, 2010 and Ou & Reynolds, 2010). There are certain behaviours in childhood that can indicate potential criminal tendencies in later life. Adolescents that are in the company of others that commit petty crimes are likely to get involved in the FA-005 25/07/08 same activities themselves, and this can spiral into independent and more serious crime in adulthood (Ou & Reynolds, 2010). In an extensive study undertaken at Pacific University, links between childhood animal cruelty and adult criminal behaviours were examined, along with how family factors influence future behaviour. Cases such as Albert DeSalvo, the „Boston Strangler‟ who was found to have a history of childhood animal cruelty, gives credibility to the theory that in some cases cruelty towards animals can be a warning sign for future violent behaviour. Factors such as child abuse, parental absence and alcoholic abuse as well as violent households and the effects on the child were also studied. Children and adolescents from unstable homes were much more likely to engage in anti-social behaviours such as animal cruelty. However, overall this link is weak and inconsistent (Duncan & Miller, 2002). Children who are brought up in violent households have been found have a greater likelihood of committing similar or more violent crimes as their family members. Some of these children have been exposed to things such as domestic violence, drug and substance abuse and parental absences due to incarceration and this often sets precedence for them to follow. These family based studies are another section of childhood and crime that is overlooked (Frisell, Lichtenstein, & Långström, 2010). The effect of substance abuse has a knock on effect on the individual, their family and on children‟s development. It has been found that woman who are substance abusers have been childhood abuse-often because of parents substance abuse and neglect- and these woman often remain victims of various forms of abuse as an adult. This again forms the „cycle of violence‟ and neglect where the same thing keeps happening within the family (Puymbroeck & Gutierres, 2006). The effects of early intervention programs aimed at children who show anti-social behaviours and violent tendencies during early to middle childhood, have been the centre of recent research. The highlighted behaviours often predict more serious problems later in life. Many of the children that attend these programs, are from families of low socioeconomic standing, have backgrounds of abuse and neglect, and often live in undesirable neighbourhoods. These programs have been found to have a more positive effect on young children from these types of neighbourhoods who are abused, but the overall impact on future criminality is yet to be determined. Although, shorter and more intensive forms of interventions on disadvantaged and at risk children appear to have a greater positive effect on children and their educational and their perceived self-worth (Deković et. al, 2011). While only the tip of the problems that are associated with negative childhood experiences and their effect on adult life has been covered, it is clear that further research is needed into the depth that these circumstances truly affect individuals. As discussed not all children who grow up in this sort of environment will become delinquents as adults, but there is a much higher likelihood of this occurring. The reoccurring factor of neglectful and / or abusive parents for adult offenders is a constant throughout many of the available studies. The research that has been published clearly shows that there is a reasonably strong link between childhood experiences and adult criminality. Early intervention programs need to be further researched and offered to at risk children and adolescents to hopefully prevent any future criminal activities, and allow young people opportunities to reach their full potential despite having many obstacles in their path, allowing them to become useful, successful and functioning members of society.

**References **

Australian Institute of Criminology. (2011, June 22). //Australian Institute of Criminology - Australian Government//. Retrieved January 26, 2012, from Crime Types: http://www.aic.gov.au/crime_types.aspx Deković, M., Slagt, M. I., Asscherb, J. J., Boendermakerc, L., Eichelsheim, V. I., & Prinzie, P. (2011, June). Effects of early prevention programs on adult criminal offending: A meta-analysis. //Clinical Psychology Review, 31//(4), 532–544. Duncan, A., & Miller, C. (2002, July/August). The impact of an abusive family context on childhood animal cruelty and adult violence. //Aggression and Violent Behavior, 7//(4), 366-383. Frisell, T., Lichtenstein, P., & Långström, N. (2010). Violent crime runs in families: a total population study of 12.5 million individuals. //Psychological Medicine, 41//(1), 97-105. Hayes, H., & Prenzler, T. (2009). //Introduction To Crime And Criminology.// Frenchs Forest: Pearson Education Australia. McGraph, S. A., Nilson, A. A., & Kerley, K. R. (2011, November/ December). Sexual victimization in childhood and the propensity for juvenile delinquency and adult criminal behavior: A systematic review. //16//(6), 485-492. Mersky, J. P., & Topitzes, J. (2010, August). Comparing early adult outcomes of maltreated and non-maltreated children: A prospective longitudinal investigation. //Children and Youth Services Review, 32//(8), 1086-1096. Nikulina, V., Widom, C. S., & Czaja, S. (2010, November 30). The Role of Childhood Neglect and Childhood Poverty in Predicting Mental Health, Academic Achievement and Crime in Adulthood. Ou, S.-R., & Reynolds, A. J. (2010, August). Childhood predictors of young adult male crime. //Children and Youth Services Review, 32//(8), 1097-1107. Puymbroeck, C. V., & Gutierres, S. E. (2006, September/october). Childhood and adult violence in the lives of women who misuse substances. //Aggression and Violent Behavior, 11//(5), 497–513.